Thus, although initial monitoring objectives are identified for each of the chosen environmental compartments, the monitoring strategy needs to be adaptable to respond to new knowledge. • Fostering transparency. Activities of the radionuclides declined rapidly once treatment of the water was initiated in the mid-1970s to bring the watercourses into compliance with the limitations specified by the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. The tailings leachate with low pH and elevated metal and radionuclide concentrations led to declines in fish populations downstream (Clulow et al., 1998). Reviewing effective examples of mine reclamation from around the globe, such as those profiled in this issue, allows the extractive industry to develop a suite of best practices for successfully reclaiming mined areas. Early phases of uranium mining (exploration and construction) would have negligible effects. The most bioavailable and toxic form present under typical environmental conditions is the divalent uranyl (UO22+) ion (Cheng et al., 2010). The committee recognizes that mining, processing, and reclamation, by nature, can cause long-term impacts to habitats (on the order of decades to centuries), hydrological alterations, and adverse changes to water quality. Neutralization of acidic waters through mixing with unpolluted ambient water can result in precipitation of iron, aluminum, and other metals. Demonstrating a transparent working relationship with conservation groups and other stakeholders can also help regulatory agencies when reviewing permit applications. In 1993, the discovery that sediments and aquatic plants downstream from the Puy de l’Age mine were contaminated with radioactive waste raised concerns about public health and environmental hazards in the area and led to a sustainable redevelopment by the site owner, AREVA NC (formerly Cogema). a uranium mine/mill complex in the United States occurred near Church Rock, New Mexico, in June 1979. Although small quantities may be neutralized, larger amounts may affect water pH levels, causing acidic conditions. Internal doses result from uptake of radionuclides principally through inhalation and ingestion. Kleinfelder’s largest criticism is that the initial assumption of a tailings dam failure as dictated by the statement of work is incorrect because (i) they estimate the probability of such a failure to be remote, and (ii) USNRC guidelines for disposal cell siting and design discourage abovegrade or partially abovegrade tailings disposal, while acknowledging that VUI is considering partially abovegrade disposal. Local groundwater recharge rates are also likely to be reduced as discussed previously in the section on surface water runoff. FIGURE 6.3 Measured potentiometric surface of the Sinnipee aquifer, southwest Wisconsin, during active dewatering of underground zinc-lead mines. However, to determine off-site human health and environmental exposure potential from dust (and particle-associated contaminants), meteorological modeling is essential. Major failures would necessitate aggressive remediation strategies and possibly long-term active site management to limit off-site migration and restore the affected area. The results of the monitoring and model review, including recommendations for improvements, would be released to the public and submitted to the relevant authorities in a timely fashion. The rates of discharge would be controlled by (1) precipitation inputs (e.g., rainfall intensity). Tailings disposal cells may be constructed specifically for that purpose or may be located in previously mined-out areas. A wide variety of uranium toxicity studies have been performed using terrestrial plants, soil invertebrates, soil microorganisms, aquatic invertebrates, fish, and mammals. Each coal mine has a limited life span due to the finite nature of the resource being extracted. Reclamation. The tailings are held behind an earthen dam. To minimize off-site impacts, air pollution controls need to be matched to the anticipated airborne effluents and appropriate scrubbing employed, with stack-based and off-site air quality monitoring to confirm proper equipment functioning (see Chapter 8). (1997) used flow-duration analysis to demonstrate that surface mining can also cause significant changes in baseflow levels in streams, but the changes were variable among the watersheds examined and a responsible mechanism could not be determined. Appropriate mitigation measures to minimize the impacts of such an event include administrative and engineering controls (e.g., access control, lock-out/tag-out procedures, secondary containment) and treatment, testing, and recycling of mill effluents prior to release to the environment. An important conclusion drawn from the field study is that despite extensive remediation efforts, AMD production and leaching of metals from waste rock dumps are a continuing cause of water pollution at this site, which has been attributed, at least in part, to a gradual increase in infiltration of water through dried and cracked clay soil covers over the waste rock dumps and subsequent AMD generation (Mudd and Patterson, 2010). For example, backfilling the mine with low-permeability material prior to flooding can minimize groundwater flow though the abandoned mine works. A detailed description of the process is outlined in NCRP (2011) for reference. Conceptual models are diagrams or narrative descriptions that synthesize complex data and concepts regarding potential exposures and site-specific transport processes into an accessible format that offer an important tool for communicating with public stakeholders, regulators, and risk assessors (Suter, 1999; Cygan et al., 2006). Finally, a program of measurement of radiation in biota is needed to determine whether the bioaccumulation of radionuclides is occurring within the food chain (NCRP, 2011). (2009) calculated a PNEC of 3.2 µg/L (0.0032 mg/L) for freshwater ecosystems.6 The various PNEC values calculated for uranium indicate that uranium is similar in toxicity to metals such as copper and cadmium. As an example, for a 10-year, 24-hour event in Virginia that produces 6.0 inches of rainfall (Hershfield, 1961), this difference in curve numbers translates to a 36 percent increase in storm runoff (from 3.3 in to 4.5 inches of runoff) that is attributable to mining. (1997) showed that the “curve number” (a term describing the potential for surface runoff, with higher numbers reflecting greater runoff potential; NRCS, 2010) increased from a value of 76 for a premining condition to 87 during a period of active mining. This loss will have long-term ecological effects in cases where woodlands or forests are removed and not restored, although it may be possible to restore grasslands following site closure. aApplicable at pH 6.5-9.0. 3. Toxicity information for those chemicals and other water quality characteristics associated with uranium mining and processing that are most likely to be of greatest ecological significance are briefly summarized in Boxes 6.4 and 6.5. 3 See http://www.cdphe.state.co.us/hm/rad/rml/energyfuels/application/licenseapp/tailings/rpt.pdf; accessed July 18, 2011. High concentrations of dissolved salts can be toxic to freshwater aquatic organisms (e.g., Sarma et al., 2005). It should be emphasized, however, that many of the documented problems with AMD are attributable to mines that operated at a time when environmental impacts were not an important consideration, and mitigation techniques were not widely employed. In the case of underground mining, impacts to soil are at a minimum because the surface disturbance is restricted to the relatively small underground entrances. Aluminum can accumulate in plants, affecting enzyme systems important for the uptake of nutrients. Similarly, Haigh estimated that mining affected 0.16% of the U.S. landmass from 1940 to 1971. The tailings management area was constructed as an unlined abovegrade facility, using an earthen dam to retain both solid and liquid tailings and enable chemical treatment of the mill effluent prior to discharge into Snake Creek and Island Lake. You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on the use of the data, the monitoring program can be designed to include the frequency, sample size, location, and parameters that are of interest. Additionally, because of mine construction disturbance to the aquifer, local groundwater flow patterns may be permanently altered, which could affect water supply for nearby domestic supply wells, although this effect is likely to be minor overall. The effects of mine waste and tailings management on surface waters would depend on the amount and composition of the various waste materials, the methods used in processing the uranium ore, the ways in which the various waste materials are stored and disposed, and the steps taken to reduce the impacts on surface water quality. Notably, the statement of task did not ask the study to address the likelihood of such an event; it asked only for an analysis of the outcome assuming it did occur. Management issues or human error, as well as criminal acts such as intentional release, could lead to large-scale environmental contamination by hazardous materials or radionuclides used or stored on-site. 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